The Letter to Thyatira: Jezebel, Authority, and the Struggle for Leadership in Early Christianity

By Omid Moludy

Introduction

The letters addressed to the seven churches of Asia Minor in the Book of Revelation are among the most significant documents of early Christianity. These letters convey symbolic, theological, and historical messages that reflect the conditions of the early churches and the challenges they faced within their sociocultural contexts (Hemer, 1987, p. 1). Among them, the letter to the Church of Thyatira (Revelation 2:18–29) stands out for several reasons: it is the longest and most detailed of the seven letters; it uniquely names an opponent, Jezebel; it distinguishes among multiple groups within the Church; and it offers an extended promise to the faithful. Additionally, its opening depiction of Christ is more direct and striking than in the other letters, reinforcing his divine authority (Duff, 2023, p. 100).

The identity and role of Jezebel in this passage have been the subject of extensive scholarly debate. Some interpreters consider Jezebel a historical figure – an individual in the Church of Thyatira whose heretical teachings led members of the Christian community into spiritual and moral corruption. Others, however, argue that Jezebel was not a person but rather a symbolic representation of external religious and cultural influences that infiltrated the Church (Garland, 2007, pp. 281-283; Osborne, 2002, p. 18).

Beyond these two prevailing perspectives, this article examines a third hypothesis: that John, the author of Revelation, as someone shaped by his Jewish background, held a conservative stance on women's leadership in the Church. From this viewpoint, his use of the name Jezebel – an established symbol of idolatry and wickedness in the Old Testament – may have served as a polemical device to condemn a female leader in the Christian community. This raises the possibility that the woman referred to as Jezebel was not necessarily a heretic but rather a prominent female figure whose authority provoked John’s opposition.

Research Methodology and Objectives

This study examines the figure of Jezebel in the letter to the Church of Thyatira through three interrelated lenses: historical, theological and social. First, it explores the historical background of Thyatira and its Christian community to determine whether there is any evidence of non-Christian religious or philosophical influences in the region. Next, it assesses the relevance of the Old Testament narrative of Jezebel to the figure mentioned in Revelation. Finally, it analyses the structure of the letter, the role ascribed to Jezebel within it, and the extent to which John’s Jewish worldview may have shaped his portrayal of this woman.

This research argues that the reference to Jezebel in the letter to the Church of Thyatira is not merely a warning against moral corruption and theological deviation but also a reflection of broader cultural and social tensions in the early Church – particularly regarding the role of women in leadership. Consequently, this study contends that interpretations of Revelation should move beyond rigid, one-dimensional readings and instead account for the historical, linguistic and sociocultural complexities embedded within the text.

The Letters in Revelation to the Churches of Asia Minor

At the outset of the Book of Revelation, we encounter a series of letters addressed to seven prominent churches in Asia Minor: Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia and Laodicea. These cities were not only vital economic and cultural centres in the ancient world but also held significant religious importance. The selection of these churches suggests a broader theological purpose, as their local challenges and spiritual conditions serve as a microcosm of the issues confronting the universal Church. Thus, the letters in Revelation function as both specific admonitions to these communities and as a paradigmatic message for the wider Christian movement.

Letter writing was a central means of communication in early Christianity, frequently employed by apostles and Church leaders to instruct, encourage, admonish and correct Christian communities. Among these epistolary traditions, circular letters – intended for multiple congregations (Hagner, 2012, pp. 588-589) – held particular importance, as they conveyed unified teachings across the region. The letters in Revelation share certain similarities with this tradition, yet they are distinguished by their prophetic nature, directly attributed to divine revelation rather than to human composition alone.

The author of Revelation, John (Rev. 1:9–11), records divine visions, but in the letters (Rev. 2–3), Christ himself speaks, underscoring their supreme authority. This distinguishes them from typical apostolic correspondence. The letters to the seven churches follow a consistent literary structure that aligns with the ancient Greek epistolary tradition while also incorporating distinct prophetic elements. Each letter begins with an introductory phrase, often containing the Greek verbοἶδα (oida), meaning ‘I know’ or ‘I am aware’ (Hagner, 2012, pp. 588-589). This expression highlights Christ’s omniscience, his perfect knowledge of the spiritual condition of each church. The letters typically proceed with commendations, rebukes, exhortations and promises of either judgement or reward, reflecting Christ’s role as both the just judge and the sovereign Lord of his Church. The content of the letters thus evaluates the deeds, strengths and weaknesses of each church, and presents the assessment primarily in symbolic, metaphorical and allegorical language, deeply rooted in the Judeo-Christian tradition. The extensive use of symbols not only enhances the spiritual depth of the message but also invites readers to engage in deeper reflection on the divine summons and its potential consequences. The symbolic nature of the text ensures that its message transcends time and place, speaking to multiple historical and theological contexts.

A defining characteristic of these letters is that Christ does not address only the internal struggles of the churches; he also refers to their surrounding social, political and religious circumstances. For example, the letter to the Church in Pergamum (Rev. 2:13–17) explicitly references external pressures, the presence of pagan temples, and the temptation to compromise faith under societal influence. Thus the letters in Revelation are not solely concerned with internal ecclesiastical matters but also engage with the broader cultural and societal challenges of their time; consequently, they function as a call to spiritual perseverance in the midst of external opposition and internal discord.

The letters in Revelation follow a structured and purposeful framework (Aune, 1997, pp. 119-121). Each begins with the phrase: ‘To the angel of the Church in ... write: These are the words of the One who ...’. This formulaic introduction not only reinforces the literary cohesion of the text but also firmly establishes the divine authority behind the message, as each letter is presented as the direct words of Christ.

A close examination of the letters reveals intricate interrelationships among some of them. Notably, the letters to Pergamum and Thyatira, Ephesus and Sardis, and Smyrna and Philadelphia form thematic pairs. These pairings share structural and theological similarities, reinforcing the unity of the message addressed to the churches. This triadic arrangement suggests a deliberate compositional pattern, inviting a comparative reading that highlights recurring theological concerns, such as faithfulness, compromise and ultimate victory in Christ. Brown (2016, pp. 288-289) includes a chart that visually compares these letters, further illustrating these interconnections.

As noted, the messages to the churches of Pergamum and Thyatira exhibit clear parallels, particularly in their condemnation of false teachings and moral corruption. Both churches appear to have been influenced by the doctrines of the Nicolaitans, and both letters explicitly address concerns regarding ethical and doctrinal deviation. In the letter to Pergamum (Rev. 2:14–15), Christ warns against ‘the teaching of Balaam’ and ‘the Nicolaitans’ – symbols of idolatry and moral compromise. This theme is intensified in the letter to Thyatira (Rev. 2:20), where the figure of Jezebel is introduced as a personification of doctrinal and ethical deviation. In both cases, the text issues a clear call to repentance, accompanied by stern warnings regarding the consequences of failing to turn away from corruption. Furthermore, both letters conclude with promises of eschatological reward for those who remain faithful. In Pergamum, Christ promises ‘the hidden manna’ and ‘a white stone’ (Rev. 2:17), while in Thyatira, the faithful are granted ‘authority over the nations’ and‘the morning star’ (Rev. 2:26–28). These symbols convey divine blessing, participation in God’s kingdom, and ultimate triumph over sin and opposition. The structural and thematic parallels between these letters reinforce the overarching message of Revelation: the necessity of spiritual vigilance, the dangers of doctrinal compromise and the certainty of divine reward for those who endure in faithfulness.

The Significance and Structure of the Letter to the Church of Thyatira

Among the seven letters in the Book of Revelation, the letter to the Church of Thyatira is the longest and exhibits a distinct structural composition. A unique feature of this letter is the placement of the word ‘church’ in the middle of the text – a characteristic not found in the other six letters in which it appears only at the beginning and the end. In the letter to Thyatira, its position at the centre effectively divides the text into two main sections. This structural division is marked by a key statement: ‘and I will strike her children dead. And all the churches will know that I am he who searches mind and heart’ (Rev. 2:23, ESV^[1]). In all the other letters, the name of the addressed church appears solely at the beginning, but in this letter, the Church is directly addressed again in the second section (v. 24): ‘Now to the rest of you in Thyatira...’ (ESV). This textual arrangement suggests a deliberate compositional technique, reinforcing the theological and rhetorical weight of the message delivered to the Church in Thyatira.

The first section of the letter to Thyatira follows a pattern similar to the letters to Ephesus and Pergamum, beginning with commendation and then moving to rebuke.

• Commendation ): ‘I know your works, your love and faith and service and patient endurance, and that your latter works exceed the first’ (v. 19, ESV)

• Rebuke ‘But I have this against you, that you tolerate that woman Jezebel, who calls herself a prophetess and is teaching and seducing my servants to practice sexual immorality and to eat food sacrificed to idols.’ (v. 20, ESV)

However, in the second section, the structure resembles the letters to Smyrna and Philadelphia, where the focus shifts to the consequences of actions and divine promises. This structural composition suggests that the letter to Thyatira encapsulates elements from all the other letters, serving as a theological and literary bridge within the collection. The author of Revelation appears to have carefully interwoven these letters, crafting them with precision to convey a cohesive and systematic message. Their sequence is not arbitrary but follows a deliberate theological and literary pattern (Stone & Stivers, 2004, p. 161); reordering these letters – such as placing the second and sixth letters at the beginning or replacing the fifth letter with the first – would disrupt the intended progression of themes and intensities. The variation in tone and the degrees of commendation and criticism suggest a carefully arranged pattern designed to guide the reader through a structured theological discourse.

Within this framework, the letter to Thyatira stands out for several reasons:

1. It is the longest of the seven letters.

2. It possesses a unique structure, divided into two main sections.

3. It is one of the most theologically and interpretively complex letters, presenting challenges both historically and exegetically.

According to Ramsay (1904, p. 327), the letter to Thyatira is not only the longest but also one of the most historically significant, offering profound insights into the socio-religious context of early Christianity. Its depth invites a comparative analysis, particularly of its literary structure and theological themes, which reinforce its pivotal role within the broader eschatological message of Revelation.

The Historical and Cultural Background of the City of Thyatira

Thyatira, now Akhisar in modern Turkey, was southeast of Pergamum. Historical records are scarce, but it was initially a military garrison (Fant & Reddish, 2003, p. 328) before becoming an economic hub under Rome. Unlike major cities like Ephesus, it lacked an imperial temple (Roloff, 1993, p. 54) but had a shrine dedicated to a prophetic woman, possibly a Sibyl (Mulholland, 2011, p. 443). These influences may have challenged the Christian community. The presence of aSibyl in Thyatira has led some scholars to associate Jezebel in Revelation with her (Keener, 1993, Rev. 2:19–20). Given the city's prophetic traditions, the author of Revelation may have seen such a figure as a theological threat, condemning her influence on the Church. The name Jezebel, a biblical symbol of idolatry and false prophecy (cf. 1 Kings 16:31; 2 Kings 9:22), could have been a rhetorical device rather than a reference to an actual individual. This raises the question of whether ‘Jezebel’ refers to a real woman in the Thyatiran Church or symbolises religious syncretism. The ambiguity of this figure reflects the complex interplay of cultural and theological concerns in Revelation’s warning to the Church.

The letter to the Church of Thyatira begins with a positive acknowledgement of its faithfulness (Rev. 2:19). This commendation stands in contrast to the letter to the Church in Ephesus, where the opposite was observed: While the Ephesian Church had lost its initial love, the Church of Thyatira had become increasingly fervent and active over time. However, following this praise, the letter delivers one of the harshest rebukes in the seven letters. The author of Revelation condemns Thyatira for tolerating Jezebel, linking her influence to doctrinal deviations that had infiltrated the Christian community. Some scholars have associated John’s rebuke of Jezebel with the teachings of the Nicolaitans, a sect condemned in other letters of Revelation (Miller, 2010, p. 219). However, since the letter to Thyatira does not explicitly mention the Nicolaitans by name, it is possible to argue that Jezebel represents an independent figure, distinct from the heresies attributed to the Nicolaitans.

Given that this study focuses on the figure of Jezebel, it is essential first to examine her historical, social and theological background in the Old Testament before drawing connections to her counterpart in Revelation.

Jezebel in the Old Testament

The Old Testament portrayal of Jezebel, recorded in 1 Kings 16:30–21:29, presents her as synonymous with idolatry and moral corruption. Jezebel, daughter of Ethbaal and wife of Ahab, introduced Baal worship to Israel, leading to widespread apostasy. She persecuted Yahweh’s prophets while promoting idolatry, leading to Elijah’s famous challenge on Mount Carmel (1 Kings 18:21). There, Yahweh’s fire consumed Elijah’s sacrifice, proving Yahweh’s supremacy and reiterating the call to faithfulness (Raepple, 2004, pp. 78, 117).

Jezebel in the Letter to the Church of Thyatira

In the letter to the Church of Thyatira (Rev. 2:18–29), a woman named Jezebel is introduced as a figure responsible for leading the Church into spiritual and moral corruption. She claims to be a prophetess, yet her teachings have misled believers into sexual immorality and participation in idolatrous practices (Rev. 2:20). The Jezebel of Thyatira mirrors theOld Testament Jezebel, reflecting a pattern of corruption, deviation and spiritual deception; the parallels between them underscore their shared archetype of rebellion against divine truth.

Idolatry and Spiritual Corruption

• In the Old Testament, Jezebel led Israel into apostasy by promoting Baal and Asherah worship, drawing the people away from Yahweh.

·       The Jezebel of Thyatira similarly encourages believers to engage in sexual immorality and pagan sacrificial rituals, symbolising spiritual compromise with the idolatrous culture surrounding the Church.

Both figures represent a seductive form of corruption, where religious syncretism and moral laxity threaten faithfulness to God.

Divine Judgement

• The Old Testament Jezebel was judged by God and met a violent and dishonourable death, fulfilling Elijah’s prophecy (1 Kings 21:23).

·       The Jezebel of Thyatira faces a similar fate, as Christ declares: ‘I will throw her onto a sickbed’ (Rev. 2:22, ESV).

This imagery suggests a deliberate inversion – the bed she used to lead others into immorality becomes the place of her suffering, reinforcing the principle of divine justice.

A Call to Repentance and the Consequences of Defiance

In both accounts, God extends an opportunity for repentance:

• The Jezebel of Thyatira is given time to repent (Rev. 2:21).

• However, if repentance is rejected, then judgement is inevitable.

The reference to Jezebel in the letter to the Church of Thyatira in the Book of Revelation invites deeper reflection on the cultural, historical and theological implications of this name for the churches of Asia Minor; three major interpretations of Jezebel’s identity and symbolism must be considered.

1. Jezebel as a Symbol of Pagan Cultural Influence

One theory regarding Jezebel in the letter to Thyatira is that she does not necessarily refer to a specific historical figure, but rather serves as a symbol of the pagan cultural and religious influences that had infiltrated the Church. These influences stemmed from idolatrous temples and non-Christian rituals in the surrounding society (Keener, 1997, pp. 1210–1211).

As previously noted, Thyatira lacked grand imperial temples, unlike cities such as Ephesus or Pergamum. However, it did contain a small temple dedicated to a prophetic woman, likely a Sibyl or Sambathe, who functioned as a seer and spiritual leader. Some scholars even suggest that ‘the Thyatiran Jezebel is the Sibyl of the Σαμβαθεῖον’ (Swete, 1906, p. 42). She may have represented a person, a group (Swete, 1906, p. 42) or religious and cultural syncretism within Thyatiran society (Kim, 2010, p. 231), which could suggest that Jezebel in Revelation reflects the influence of this temple and its teachings on the Christian community. According to this view, Jezebel in Revelation symbolises the Church’s struggle against doctrines shaped by the surrounding pagan culture. These influences may have included:

• The promotion of sexual immorality – likely a metaphor for spiritual compromise, where the Church embraced non-Christian values and assimilated secular culture.

• The consumption of food sacrificed to idols – possibly signifying participation in pagan rituals or the integration of foreign religious elements into Christian worship.

·       The blending of Christian faith with non-Christian customs resulted in a dilution of the Church’s purity and a departure from its sacred identity.

From this perspective, Jezebel is not necessarily an individual woman but rather a representation of a group promoting heretical teachings that, much like the Jezebel of the Old Testament, led God’s people away from true faith and into spiritual compromise.

2. Jezebel as a Prophetess and Leader in the Church of Thyatira

A second interpretation considers Jezebel to be an actual person (Akin, 2016, p. 71). Within the Church of Thyatira, she was regarded as a prophetess and, as Beale (2013, p. 96) notes, ‘she apparently holds a respected position within the Church’, wielding considerable spiritual authority and influence. This perspective also connects Jezebel with the Nicolaitans, a sect condemned elsewhere in Revelation (Segovia & Sugirtharajah, 2009, p. 449). (The Nicolaitans were generally associated with the promotion of immoral and deviant teachings, leading churches into spiritual and moral corruption.) This suggests that:

• She claimed divine inspiration and spiritual authority.

• She had a significant following within the Church, influencing believers through her teachings and prophetic claims.

• Her doctrinal deviations led Christians into moral and theological compromise (Rev. 2:20), similar to theaccusations against the Nicolaitans.

If Jezebel was indeed a real woman in the Church of Thyatira, she may have been at the centre of a controversial theological movement, blending Christian faith with elements of local pagan religious practices. Her self-proclaimed prophetic status suggests that she was an active teacher and leader, whose influence was strong enough to warrant asevere rebuke from Christ himself.

3. The Author of Revelation and the Use of the Jezebel Figure in the Jewish-Christian Context

A third perspective – less often discussed – suggests that Jezebel in Revelation was not necessarily a heretic or false teacher, but rather that John, the author of Revelation, as a conservative Jew, opposed the presence of a woman in church leadership. According to this theory, John associated this woman with the Old Testament Jezebel, not because of her doctrinal deviations, but because he disapproved of her authority within the Christian community. In Jewish tradition,women rarely held religious leadership positions, and it is possible that John, shaped by this tradition, reacted strongly against a female prophetess in the Church.

Key Considerations Supporting This Hypothesis

1. The Likelihood of John Being of Jewish Background

Several factors suggest John’s Jewish background: his Greek reflects Hebrew-Aramaic syntax, he heavily references Old Testament imagery (Stone & Stivers, 2004, pp. 161–163), and his apocalyptic style resembles Jewish literature such as Daniel and Baruch. These elements strongly indicate that John was writing from a Jewish perspective.

2. John’s Position on Female Leadership in the Church

If John was of Jewish background, it follows that he may have held traditional views on gender roles in religious leadership.

• In first-century Judaism, women were excluded from formal leadership roles in synagogues and religious institutions (Massey, 2015, pp. 105–107).

• In several Jewish sects – such as the Pharisees, Sadducees and Essenes – female spiritual authority was largelyrejected.

• In this context, if a woman in Thyatira had risen to a leadership or prophetic role, John may have reactednegatively, not necessarily for theological reasons, but due to cultural and traditional biases.

Thus, John’s opposition to Jezebel may have been rooted in Jewish tradition rather than in her actual teachings.

3. The Similarity Between John’s and Paul’s Views on Women

Although Paul acknowledged and praised several faithful female believers, such as Phoebe (Rom. 16:1) and Euodia and Syntyche (Phil. 4:2–3), he placed restrictions on women’s roles in church leadership:

•  ‘the women should keep silent in the churches. For they are not permitted to speak, but should be in submission, as the Law also says.  If there is anything they desire to learn, let them ask their husbands at home. For it is shameful for a woman to speak in church.’ (1 Corinthians 14:34–35, ESV)

•  ‘I do not permit a woman to teach or to exercise authority over a man; rather, she is to remain quiet.’ (1 Timothy 2:12, ESV)

This suggests that some early church leaders strongly opposed female teachers and prophets. If John was aware of Paul’s letters (which is likely, given that Revelation was written decades later), he may have shared Paul’s cultural and theological discomfort with women in leadership, leading him to view the female leader of Thyatira in a highly negative light.

4. Was Jezebel Truly a Heretic?

In Revelation 2:20, John says Jezebel: ‘… calls herself a prophetess and is teaching and seducing my servants to practice sexual immorality and to eat food sacrificed to idols.’ (ESV)

However, several ambiguities in this passage raise important questions:

• John states that she ‘calls herself a prophetess’, which suggests that his primary concern may not have been her actual teachings, but rather her claim to prophetic authority.

• The phrase ‘sexual immorality’ in Revelation is often symbolic, referring not necessarily to literal adultery(Patterson, 2012, p. 115), but to spiritual compromise with non-Christian culture. It is possible that Jezebel was encouraging greater engagement with society, which John opposed. As Patterson states, ‘Specifically, the sin at Thyatira was the sin of tolerance’ (Patterson, 2012, p. 113).

·       The text does not explicitly state that she promoted idol worship or performed idolatrous rituals, unlike the Old Testament Jezebel.

Thus, it is plausible that John, as a conservative Jewish-Christian leader, simply objected to a woman’s leadership role in the Church and, as a result, compared her to one of the most reviled figures in Jewish history – Jezebel.

Conclusion

The portrayal of Jezebel in the letter to Thyatira extends beyond theological or historical concerns; it reflects broader cultural, social and religious tensions within the early Church. This study challenges the assumption that Jezebel was a false teacher, arguing that her depiction may have been shaped by John’s Jewish background and his resistance to female leadership.

A critical reading of Revelation suggests that the reference to Jezebel may function as both a literary and symbolic device while also potentially referring to a historical figure within the Thyatiran Church. John’s rhetoric aligns with Paul’s restrictive stance on women in leadership, but by likening a female leader to one of the most infamous women in Jewish history, John’s critique invites further reflection on whether his opposition was theological or rather influenced by prevailing views on women’s authority.

Thus, the letter to Thyatira is not just a warning against theological corruption but a reflection of conflicts regarding women’s authority in early Christianity. Future studies comparing John’s stance on female prophets with other New Testament texts may further illuminate the gendered dynamics of leadership in the formative years of the Church.

^[1] ESV refers to the English Standard Version of the Bible, a modern evangelical translation first published in 2001.

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